Maps and Tables 13
Foreword 15
Author’s Preface 17
Acknowledgments 21
1: European Mennonites and Amish Venture to North America, 1680s–1790s 23
Early Pennsylvania Settlements 25
The French and Indian War 31
The Revolutionary War 33
Pennsylvania Mennonite Faith in the Mid-Eighteenth Century 37
Pietism.39
Mennonites at the End of the Revolutionary War 49
Meanwhile in Polish Prussia 51
Conclusions 52
2: Settling on the Canadian Frontier, 1780s–1830s 55
Mennonite Loyalists in Niagara? 56
Mennonites East of the Niagara River 60
The Thirty Settlement.61
The Twenty Community 62
First Nations and the Grand River 64
Mennonites Come to the Grand River 66
The Beasley Mortgage 69
Mennonite-Aboriginal Relations 71
Looking to York County 73
York County Amish 74
Early Settlement and Church Life 75
War of 1812 and Mennonite Pacifism 81
The Amish Settlement in Wilmot 84
Conclusions 88
3: Religious Renewal Divides Canada West’s Mennonites, 1830s–1870s 91
Reformed Mennonite Church 93
Mennonites and the Evangelical Association 95
Mid-Niagara Peninsula Renewal 98
Renewal at Waterloo 100
York County Renewal 105
Reformed Mennonite Growth 106
The “New Mennonites” 108
General Conference Mennonite or Evangelical Mennonite? 113
Failed Reconciliation 116
The Mennonite Church of Canada 117
Amish House Churches and the Holdeman Mennonites 121
Mennonites and Blacks in the Mid-Nineteenth Century 122
Conclusions 122
4: Assurance of Salvation versus Faithful Living: Diverse Theological Lands, 1870s–1890s 125
Solomon Eby and the Reforming Mennonites 129
United Mennonites to Mennonite Brethren in Christ 134
Innovation in Mission and Doctrine 135
Women in Ministry 138
Cooperation in Mutual Aid for Mennonites from Russia 140
Moving toward English 142
Old Order Mennonites Emerge 144
The Amish 151
Ontario Amish Settlements in 1881 152
Conclusions 155
5: New Frontiers in Missions and Service, 1890s–1910s 157
English Gospel Music 159
Ontario Isn’t the Promised Land 163
The Appeal of Missions—Foreign and City Outreach 166
Formation of Women’s Organizations 176
Bible School Training for Missions 178
Congregational Bible Teaching 182
Further Division 184
Conclusions 187
6: World War I Unites, Theology and Nonconformity Divide, 1910s–1920s 189
Surprised by World War I 191
Failed Negotiations with the Government 195
Accommodation of Sorts 203
Non-Resistant Relief Organization 205
The Lure of Fundamentalism and Pentecostalism 208
First Mennonite Church in Kitchener Divides 224
“Dress” in Other Mennonite Groups 226
The Amish Mennonites Organize 227
Conclusions 229
7: Mennonites from the Soviet Union Enrich Ontario Mennonite Culture, 1920s–1930s 231
Contemplating Russian Mennonite Immigration 233
The Crisis in Russia 236
One Family’s Experience 238
Immigration and the Clash of Cultures 241
Settling in to Canada 248
The Kirchliche, Mennonite Brethren, and Allianzgemeinde 254
Forming Immigrant Churches 256
Conclusions 264
8: Maintaining Separation from the World, 1920s–1930s 267
Preservation of Community 268
Church Growth amid Economic Woes 273
Mennonite Brethren in Christ Theology Evolves 278
Forms of Separation 280
Investing in Overseas Missions 283
Divisions within the Old Order 285
Plymouth Brethren or Mennonite Brethren? 287
The Frema Geisht 289
Conclusions 290
9: Ontario Mennonites in Wartime, 1939–1950 293
Claiming Mennonite Privileges 294
The Conference of Historic Peace Churches 301
Wartime Service 310
Mennonites in the Military 322
Conclusions 325
10: Reshaping and Preserving the Mennonite Promised Lands, 1945–1960s 327
Postwar Immigration 329
Mennonite Central Committee in Canada 335
The Promised Land is No Longer Mennonite 341
Education for Preservation 347
Conclusions 359
11: Faithfulness as Assimilation, Faithfulness as Nonconformity, 1950–1970 361
Venturing to the Cities 363
Immigrant Mennonite Language Transition 369
Engaging the Business World 372
Faithfulness: Conformity or Nonconformity? 376
Visible Symbols of Separation 385
Changing Family Culture 388
Media 390
Faithfulness Means Separation 394
Conclusions 403
12: Identity Preservation through Institutions, 1945–1970 405
Shifts in Congregational Life 406
Confident Institution Building 416
Conclusions 432
13: New Participants in the Promised Lands, 1950s–1990s 435
Old Colony Mennonites 437
Old Order Amish Immigration 445
Other Groups 449
Northern Light Gospel Mission 450
Ontario Mennonites in 1967 452
The Vietnam War, Central American Revolution, and Refugee Assistance 454
New Languages Join the Ontario Mennonite Community 460
Integration of New Cultures 467
Conclusions 468
14: Nonconformity Leads to Growth, 1970 into the Twenty-First Century 471
The Flourishing and Changing Old Order 474
Low German Mennonites Multiply and Diversify 483
Conservative Expansion and Realignment 501
Conclusions 519
15: Assimilated Mennonites Join the Mainstream, 1970 into the Twenty-First Century 521
Accelerating Urbanization 523
Conrad Grebel University College 532
Mennonite Education or Alternative Education? 536
Theological Diversity 542
Lobbying Government 559
Christian Peacemaker Teams 562
Housing 564
Marred Images 564
Selling the Mennonite Brand 567
Conclusions 571
16: Looking Back, Looking Forward 573
Ontario Mennonites and Amish in the Twenty-First Century 581
Appendix: The Four Types of Ontario Mennonites and Reflections on Their Futures 589
Assimilated Mennonites (AM) 589
Separatist Conservatives (SC) 590
Evangelical Conservatives (EC) 591
Old Orders (OO) 592
Notes 595
Glossary 757
Bibliography 767
Index 833
Studies in Anabaptist and Mennonite History Series 872
The Author 877